Footnotes

³"Interview with Capt. M. A. Healy, U. S. Revenue Marine Service," San Francisco Chronicle, December 12, 1890. (reprinted in) Sheldon Jackson, Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer Into Alaska. (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1893), pp. 31-2.

⁴U.S. Bureau of Education, Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1892-1893. (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1895), pp. 1708-10.

⁵Charles Campbell Hughes, An Eskimo Village in the Modern World. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1960), pp. 7-15.

⁶(see) Dorothy Jean Ray, "Nineteenth Century Settlement and Subsistence Patterns in Bering Strait," Arctic Anthropology, Vol. 2, No. 2 (1964), pp. 62-3; Dorothy Jean Ray, "Sheldon Jackson and the Reindeer Industry in Alaska," Journal of Presbyterian History, Vol. 43, No. 2 (June, 1965), pp. 73-77; "Annual Report of Minor Bruce, Superintendent of Port Clarence Reindeer Station," (in) Sheldon Jackson, Third Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer in Alaska 1893 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1894), p. 86.

⁷Jackson, Third Report . . ., p. 15.

⁸For an enlightening treatment of nineteenth century Bering Strait inter-village political relations, see: Dorothy Jean Ray, "Land Tenure and Polity of the Bering Strait Eskimos," Journal of the West, Vol. VI, No. 3 (July 1967). There may appear to exist some disagreement between my assertion that in 1892, Port Clarence fell within Kingegan territory and Dr. Ray’s descriptions of early 19th Century Sinramiut-Kauwerak control over that area. There is little doubt that by 1892, Kingegan traders held a monopoly over the sale and distribution of imported reindeer hides in the Port Clarence region. Early reports clearly indicate that Kingegan — not Sinramiut or Kauwerak — Natives were the most hostile to live reindeer importation. Indeed, Kauwerak was an inland village based primarily upon caribou exploitation. It is doubtful that Kauwerak hegemony long survived the disappearance of caribou by 1880, thus creating an economic vacuum which was apparently filled by Kingegan traders. In 1892, Sinramiut is reported to have had a population of 100; Kingegan 527 to 570; and, Kauwerak, 200.

⁹Sheldon Jackson, Thirteenth Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska 1903 (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1904, p. 65.

¹⁰J. Walter Johnshoy, Apaurak in Alaska: Social Pioneering Among the Eskimos, translated and compiled from the records of the Reverend T. L. Brevig, pioneer missionary to the Eskimo of Alaska, from 1894-1917 (Philadelphia: Dorrance & Co., 1944), p. 94 (and) field interviews.

¹¹Charlie Antisarlook died in the 1900 measles epidemic, leaving Mary with over 300 reindeer. Mary, though herself childless, raised at least 10 children. By 1905, the following apprentices and owners were associated with her herd: Accebuck (Eaton), Amikravinik (Eaton) Angolook (Eaton), Avogook (Unalakleet), Koktoak (Eaton), Sagoonick (Eaton), Tatpan (Unalakleet).

¹²Ray, Journal of the West, Vol. VI., No. 3, p. 378. (and) Robert F. Spencer, The North Alaska Eskimo — A Study in Ecology and Society, Bulletin 171 (Washington: Bureau of American Ethnology, 1959), pp. 151-8.

¹³Sheldon Jackson, Fifteenth Annual Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska 1905 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1906), pp. 20-22

¹⁴U. S. Bureau of Education, Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1910 (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1910), pp. LV-LXII.

¹⁵Jackson, Third Report . . ., 1894, p. 15.

¹⁶U.S. Bureau of Education, Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1910, pp. LV-LXII.

¹⁷Sheldon Jackson, Sixth Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer in Alaska., 1896 (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1896), p. 15.

¹⁸Jackson, Thirteenth Annual Report . . ., 1903, p. 21.

¹⁹Sheldon Jackson, Eighth Annual Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer Into Alaska 1898 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1899) p. 47.

²⁰Ibid.

²¹Jackson, Thirteenth Annual Report . . ., 1903, pp. 138-9.

²²Jackson, Sixth Report . . . , 1896, p. 51.

²³Jackson, Report on Introduction . . . , 1893, p. 28.

²⁴Jackson, Third Report . . . , 1894, p. 31.

²⁵Sheldon Jackson, Fourth Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska 1894 (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office 1895), p. 63.

²⁶Jackson, Sixth Report . . . , 1896, p. 14.

²⁷Johnshoy, Apaurak in Alaska, p. 94.

²⁸Sheldon Jackson, Ninth Annual Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska 1899 (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1900, p. 22.

²⁹Division of Revenue Cutter Service, Treasury Department Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue Cutter Bear and the Overland Expedition for the Relief of the Whalers in the Arctic 0cean, from November 27, 1897 to September 13, 1898 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1899), p. 51.

³⁰Ibid., p. 17.

³¹Jackson, Ninth Annual Report . . . , 1900, pp. 136-7.

³²Ibid., p. 139.

³³Ibid., pp. 108-9.

³⁴Ibid.

³⁵See Annual Reports for 1892 through 1896.

³⁶Johnshoy, Apaurak in Alaska, pp. 43-48.

^*Eskimo given names are often an insight into the contributions of the receiver, as perceived by the Eskimo. Dr. Jackson was known to the Eskimo as "the needle man," because he always gave sewing needles as gifts on his annual visits. Captain Healy was known as "the man who winks," because when excited his eye twitched nervously. T. L. Brevig, a missionary at Port Clarence from 1894 to 1917, became known as Apaurak, "Father of All," and his wife became Amerora, "Mother of All," due to their work with orphans created by the 1900 measles epidemic. W. T. Lopp became Tom Gorrah, "Tom the Good." To some, this writer is known as Anuktooyoonik, after a mythical Eskimo who, in his curiosity, violated the secrecy of a midget peoples living in the rocky peaks of the Kigluaik Mountains.

³⁷Division of Revenue Cutter Service, Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue Cutter Bear . . . , 1899.

³⁸Sheldon Jackson, Eleventh Annual Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska 1901 (Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1902), p. 18.

³⁹Ibid.

⁴⁰Sheldon Jackson, Twelfth Annual Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska 1902 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1903) p. 138.

⁴¹Ibid., p. 11.

⁴²Jackson, Fifteenth Annual Report . . . , 1906, p. 11.

⁴³Ibid.

⁴⁴Ibid., pp. 20-25. In those villages without Lapland owners, the largest Eskimo owners were: Pt. Barrow, Ahlook, 193 head; Kivalina, Electoona, 172 head; Deering, Keok, 327 head; Shishmaref, Sokweena, 119 head; Wales, Ootenna, 273 head; Kivyeargruk, 136 head; Teller, Ablikak, 221 head; Eaton, Mary Andrewuk, 317 head. (All 1905 figures.)

⁴⁵U.S. Bureau of Education, Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1910, pp. LV-LXII.

⁴⁶Jackson, Third Report . . . , 1894, p. 20.

⁴⁷Jackson, Sixth Report . . . , 1896, pp. 17-18.

⁴⁸U. S. Bureau of Education, Report on the Alaska School Service and on the Alaska Reindeer Service (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1909), pp. 1046-1056.

⁴⁹Ibid.

⁵⁰Johnshoy, Apaurak in Alaska, p. 70.

⁵¹Jackson, Twelfth Annual Report . . . , 1903, pp. 80-1.

⁵²Ibid.

⁵³U.S. Bureau of Education, Report on the Work of the Bureau of Education for the Natives of Alaska 1915-1916 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1917), p. 18.

⁵⁴Ibid.

⁵⁵Ibid.

⁵⁶U.S. Bureau of Education Report on the Alaska School Service and on the Alaska Reindeer Service (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1908), p. 1055.

⁵⁷U. S. Bureau of Education, Report on the Work of the Bureau of Education for the Natives of Alaska 1915-1916, p. 18.

⁵⁸The Eskimo, December 1916, p. 10.

⁵⁹A schedule of activities for the 1917 fairs is in Appendix A.

⁶⁰The Eskimo, December 1916, p. 5.

⁶¹"Report on the First Reindeer Fair" (in) U. S. Bureau of Education, Report on the Work of the Bureau of Education for the Natives of Alaska 1914-1915 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1917), p. 81.

⁶²The Eskimo, January 1917, pp. 3 and 6; The Eskimo, November 1916, p. 6; and field interviews conducted by the author.

⁶³Mr Shields was well respected among the Eskimo. A tour through the Nome graveyard revealed his to be the most expensive headstone — purchased with donations from several Eskimo villages. The two government men most frequently remembered by elderly reindeer owners are W. T. Lopp and W. C. Shields.

⁶⁴Declaration of ownership of Reindeer in Alaska of Alaska Livestock and Packing Company, August 29, 1938, in Carl J. Lomen papers (Archives, University of Alaska). Cited hereafter as Lomen Papers.

⁶⁵These and the following data referring to the Lomen family are derived from: Carl J. Lomen, Fifty Years in Alaska (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1954).

⁶⁶Those remarks are in no way intended to reflect poorly upon the Lomen family. It is doubtful that anyone given the absence of earnings attraction, the lack of widespread knowledge of the resource, and the corresponding absence of comparable experiences, could have done better. This is a brutally short treatment of an exciting, if troubled, arctic enterprise.

⁶⁷ Mayor G. J. Lomen, "Views on the Development of the Reindeer Industry," The Eskimo, November 1917, pp. 5-6.

⁶⁸The decennial rates of change for the white population in Northwest Alaska adequately shows these very important market fluctuations.

SOURCE: George W. Rogers and Richard A. Cooley, Alaska’s Population and Economy, Vol. II. (College: University of Alaska, 1963), p. 32.

⁶⁹Walter C. Shields, "Eskimo Reindeer Men Get Together," The Eskimo, September 1917, p. 1.

⁷⁰In the shallow Bering Strait, ocean-going vessels must lay from 3 to 12 miles off shore, depending upon the location. Only at Port Clarence is there a known natural harbor.

⁷¹"Memorandum of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation," February 2, 1933, Lomen Papers, R.F.C. file.

⁷²The word, "estimated," though perhaps boring to the reader, is used for the good reason that there was no precise field counting during this period. The figures used are from: Herbert C. Hanson, "Importance and Development of the Native Reindeer Industry in Alaska," (Washington: The Catholic University of America, 1952), p. 9. (mimeo.)

⁷³The Lomen "Companies" is used to refer to the Northwestern Livestock Corporation and its subsidiary organizations: Alaska Livestock and Packing Company, Nunivak Development Corporation, Lomen Commercial Company, Arctic Transportation Company.

⁷⁴Letter of Ray L. Wilbur to Reconstruction Finance Corporation, February 25, 1933, Lomen Papers, R.F.C. file.

⁷⁵Declaration of Ownership, August 29, 1938, Lomen Papers.

⁷⁶Bank Draft, May 12, 1933, Lomen Papers, R.F.C. file.

⁷⁷Minutes of the Cape Reindeer Company, in Anthony J. Diamond Papers (Archives, University of Alaska), Box 30, cited hereafter as Diamond Papers.

⁷⁸Ibid.

⁷⁹Letter from Louis Tungwenuk, President of the Cape Reindeer Company to William T. Lopp, September 19, 1925, Diamond Papers, Box 30.

⁸⁰Letter from Chester Sevick, Manager of the Kivalina herd, to William T. Lopp, September 1937, Diamond Papers, Box 30.

⁸¹Froelich Rainey, "Native Economy and Survival in Arctic Alaska," Applied Anthropology, October - December 1941.

⁸²Margaret Lantis, "The Reindeer Industry in Alaska," Arctic, Vol. 3, No. 1 (April 1950), pp. 27-44.

⁸³Margaret Lantis, "Eskimo Herdsmen: Introduction of Reindeer Herding to the Natives of Alaska," Human Problems in Technological Change — A Casebook, Ed. by Edward H. Spicer (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1952), pp. 127-148.

⁸⁴"Melting snow in the spring" very appropriately describes the futility felt by the Eskimo in watching the deer decline in number and importance. Sevick to Lopp, September 1937, Diamond Papers, Box 30.

⁸⁵Hanson, "Importance and Development of the Native Reindeer Industry in Alaska," p. 7. These figures were regarded by at least one writer as being too high. See Ben B. Mozee, The Reindeer Problem in Alaska (Nome: privately printed, 1933).

⁸⁶These data are derived from association field ledgers and notes examined by the author. Ambiguous entries were defined with the help, in some cases, of the Eskimo owner who had made the entry thirty years earlier. Ledgers of the Deering Reindeer Stock Company and the Unalakleet Native Company provided most of the material used.

⁸⁷Lawrence J. Palmer, Raising Reindeer in Alaska, miscellaneous publication number 207 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1934), pp. 4-5

⁸⁸Ibid., p. 5.

⁸⁹Ledgers of Unalakleet Native Company, pp. 190-191.

⁹⁰J. Sidney Rood, Memorandum to Unit Managers, dated October 17, 1944 (in the files of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Nome, Alaska). (Mimeo.)

⁹¹J. Sidney Rood, Statement to the Alaska Planning Council Regarding Reindeer in Alaska, 1938 (in the files of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Nome, Alaska). (Mimeo.)

⁹²J. Sidney Rood, Circular Letter to Local Reindeer Supervisors and Unit Managers, No. 23, November 5, 1936 (in the files of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Nome, Alaska). (Mimeo.)

⁹³J. Sidney Rood, Circular Letter to Local Reindeer Supervisors and Unit Managers, Nos. 20, 31, and 36, August 26, 1936, February 20, 1937, and November 3, 1937 (in the files of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Nome, Alaska). (Mimeo.)

⁹⁴Letter from Albert Bernhard to Anthony J. Diamond, May 19, 1937, Diamond Papers, Box 32; also letter from Emilie B. Anderson to Anthony J. Diamond, June 27, 1940, Diamond Papers, Box 31.

⁹⁵J. Sidney Rood, Circular Letter to Local Reindeer Supervisors and Unit Managers, No. 44, April 6, 1939 (in the files of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Nome, Alaska). (Mimeo.)

⁹⁶J. Sidney Rood, Circular Letter to Reindeer Owners, December 22, 1939 (in the files of the Bu eau of Indian Affairs, Nome, Alaska). (Mimeo.)

⁹⁷There exist today two "community owned herds" that were carried over from the association period of reindeer ownership. These are known as the Stebbins and St. Lawrence Island herds. Remnants of another community herd are located on Kodiak Island.

⁹⁸Political Correspondence Files, Diamond Papers, Box 32.

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