by Fae L. Korsmo

¹State of Alaska, Department of Labor, ‘Alaska population by sex, race and Hispanic origin: 1990 Census,’ Juneau, 1991.

²Krauss, Michael, Alaska Native Languages, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 1980.

³State of Alaska, Department of Labor, Alaska Population Overview, Juneau, 1991, p.58.

⁴State of Alaska, Department of Labor, ‘Alaska Population,’ op cit.

⁵Alaska Federation of Natives, The AFN Report on the Status of Alaska Natives: A Call for Action, Anchorage, 1989; Napoleon, Harold, Yuu-yaraq: The Way of the Human Being, Center for Cross-Cultural Studies, College of Rural Alaska, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 1991.

⁶Fortuine, Robert, Chills and Fever: Health and Disease in the Early History of Alaska, University of Alaska Press, Fairbanks, 1989, pp. 115-16; Gibson, James R., ‘Colonial Russian America,’ in Mangusso, M.C. and Haycox, S.W. (eds.), Interpreting Alaska's History, Alaska Pacific University Press, Anchorage, 1989, p. 113; Veltre, Douglas W., ‘Perspectives on Aleut culture change during the Russian period,’ in Russian America: The Forgotten Frontier, Washington State Historical Society, Tacoma, 1990, p.178.

⁷This paragraph, unless otherwise noted, drives from Veltre, op. cit.

⁸Crowell, Aron, ‘Prehistory of Alaska’s Pacific coast,’ in Fitzhugh, W.W. and Crowell, A. (eds.), Crossroads of the Continents, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, 1988, pp.132-6.

⁹The Inuit of Alaska can be classified into two ethnolinguistic categories: the North Alaskan Inuit, who speak Inupiag, and the Yupik-speaking groups. The latter include Siberian (encompassing St Lawrence Island), Bering Sea (including Nunivak Island) and Pacific (Koniag and Chugach). The Kenaitze, on the other hand, have been grouped in the Athabaskan-Eyak family of languages. See Fitzhugh, William W., ‘Eskimos: hunters of the frozen coasts,’ in Fitzhugh and Crowell, op. cit.; and Kraus, Michael, Alaska Native Languages (map), University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 1980.

¹⁰Fiennup-Riordan, Ann, Yup'ik Lives and How We See Them, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick and London, 1990, pp.8-10.

¹¹Black, Lydia T., ‘The story of Russian America,’ in Fitzhugh and Crowell, op. cit., pp.76-7.

¹²De Laguna, Frederica, ‘Tlingit: people of the wolf and raven,’ in Fitzhugh and Crowell, op. cit., pp.58-61.

¹³US Library of Congress, Law Library, Russian Administration of Alaska and the Status of Alaska Natives, Appendix 3, Senate Document No. 152, 81st Congress, 2nd Session, Washington, DC, 1950, pp.56-6.

¹⁴Chance, Norman A., The Inupiat and Arctic Alaska: An Ethnography of Development, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Fort Worth, 1990, pp.21-33.

¹⁵US Library of Congress, Law Library, op. cit., p.55.

¹⁶For a more detailed treatment of Athabaskan culture, see VanStone, James W., Athapaskan Adaptations: Hunters and Fishermen of the Subarctic Forests, Aldine, Chicago, 1974.

¹⁷Chance, op. cit., pp.21-33.

¹⁸Black, Lydia T., ‘Ivan Pan'kov: architect of Aleut literacy,’ in Mangusso and Haycox, op. cit., Dauenhauer, Richard L., ‘Orthodoxy and education,’ paper presented at the Symposium on Russian America, Anchorage Museum, 17 November 1990.

¹⁹Svensson, Frances, ‘The final crisis of tribalism: comparative ethnic policy on the American and Russian Frontiers,’ Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, January 1978, pp. 100-23.

²⁰US Library of Congress, Law Library, op. cit., pp. 11-16; Jones, Richard S., Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971 (Public Law 92-203): History and Analysis, Congressional Research Service, Washington, DC, 1972, pp.6-7.

²¹Pullar, Gordon, presentation to the Cook Inlet Historical Society Anchorage, 18 October 1991.

²²Treaty of Cession (15 Stat. 539), Article III, as quoted in United States v. Berrigan, 2 Alaska Reports, 445 (1905). Note that the Alaska Natives never signed a treaty with Russia or the United States surrendering their aboriginal rights.

²³Naske, Klaus M., A History of Alaska Statehood, University Press of America, Lanham, 1985, pp.9-18.

²⁴Haycox, Stephen, ‘Racism, Indians and territorial politics,’ in Mangusso and Haycox, op. cit., p.289.

²⁵Organic Act of 17 May 1884, 23 Stat. 24, sec. 8.

²⁶Two early Alaskan cases affirming aboriginal title were United States v. Berrigan, Alaska Reports 442 (1905) and United States v. Cadzow, Alaska Reports 125 (1914). For more detailed discussion of aboriginal title, see Berman, Howard R., ‘The concept of aboriginal rights in the early legal history of the United States,’ Buffalo Law Review, No.27, 1978, pp.637-67; and Slattery, Brian, Ancestral Lands, Alien Laws: Judicial Perspectives on Aboriginal Title, Studies on Aboriginal Rights No.2, University of Saskatchewan Native Law Centre, Saskatchewan, 1983.

²⁷Slattery, op. cit., pp.38-9; Case, David, Alaska Natives and American Laws, University of Alaska Press, Fairbanks, 1984, p.65.

²⁸Cases making this argument included Sutter v. Heckman, Alaska Reports 188 (1901), and Worthen Lumber Mills v. Alaska-Juneau Gold Mining Company, 229 F. 966 (9th Cir., 1916).

²⁹Otis, D.S., The Dawes Act and the Allotment of Indian Lands, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1973, pp.152-3.

³⁰Gruening, Ernest, The State of Alaska, Random House, New York, 1954, pp.96-9.

³¹Case, op. cit., pp.85-98. Prior to 1936 Congress created only one reservation in Alaska: Metlakatla. Metlakatla was considered an exception. A group of Tsimshian Indians from British Columbia and missionary William Duncan obtained permission from US President Grover Cleveland to settle on the Annette Islands in 1887, after the Canadian government disputed the Tsimshians’ land claims. Four years later Congress established a reservation for them. See ibid., p.116, note 26.

³²Philip, Kenneth R., ‘The New Deal and Alaskan Natives, 1936-1945,’ Pacific Historical Review, Vol.50, No.3, 1981, pp.309-27.

³³Case, op. cit., pp.12, 100.

³⁴State of Alaska, Governor’s Task Force, Report of the Governor's Task Force on Federal-State-Tribal Relations, submitted to Governor Sheffield, Anchorage, 14 February 1986, p.121.

³⁵Gruening, op. cit., pp.460-92.

³⁶Wilkinson, Charles F. and Biggs, Eric R., ‘The evolution of the termination policy,’ American Indian Law Review, No.5, 1977, pp.139-84.

³⁷Gruening, op. cit., pp.460-92

³⁸Naske, Klaus M., and Slotnick, Herman E., Alaska —- A History of the 49th State, 2nd edn., University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1987, p.297.

³⁹Arnold, Robert D., Alaska Native Land Claims, Alaska Native Foundation, Anchorage, 1978, p.100.

⁴⁰Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska, Alaska Natives and the Land, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1968, p.454.

⁴¹Ellana, Linda J., Bering-Norton Petroleum Development Scenarios and Sociocultural Impacts Analysis, Vol. 1, Minerals Management Service Social and Economic Studies, Anchorage, 1980, pp.256, 350.

⁴²Langdon, Steve J., ‘Alaskan Native subsistence: current regulatory regimes and issues,’ paper presented at the Roundtable Discussions of Subsistence, Vol. 19, Alaska Native Review Commission Hearings, Inuit Circumpolar Conference, Anchorage, 10-13 October 1984, p.11.

⁴³With respect to aboriginal title, see Cohen, Felix S., Handbook of Federal Indian Law, Michie Bobbs-Merrill, Charlottesville, 1982, p.492; and Berman, op. cit.

⁴⁴Among the Marshall opinions, see Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 US (5 Pet.) 1 (1831), and Worcester v. Georgia, 31 US (6 Pet.) 515 (1832).

⁴⁵Cohen, op. cit., pp.247-50.

⁴⁶The state’s position summarized here is taken from the report on federal-state-tribal relations, State of Alaska, Governor’s Task Force, op. cit.

⁴⁷Williams, Andy, ‘Natives get cash but little land in first decade,’ Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, 16 November 1981, p.1.

⁴⁸Berger, Thomas R., Village Journey: The Report of the Alaska Native Review Commission, Hill & Wang, New York, 1985, pp.18-19.

⁴⁹Ibid., p.167.

⁵⁰‘1991 resolutions,’ Alaska Native News, June 1986, pp.28-35.

⁵¹Alaska Federation of Natives, 1991: Making It Work: A Guide to Public Law 100-241, Anchorage, 1991.

⁵²Bernton, Hal, ‘Native firm OKs new stock plan,’ Anchorage Daily News, 10 November 1989, pp.Cl, C5.

⁵³The ANCSA did provide for revenue sharing between regional corporations, a hastily drafted section known as 7 (i) which has been the subject of considerable litigation. See Bernton, Hal, ‘Robin Hood clause shares the wealth,’ Anchorage Daily News, 15 December 1991, p.E3.

⁵⁴Case, op. cit., p.295; Caulfield, Richard A., ‘Alaska’s subsistence management regimes,’ Polar Record, Vol.22, No.164, 1992, p.25.

⁵⁵Smith, Eric, ‘McDowell decision and ANILCA: what’s next?,’ Alaska Marine Resource Quarterly, No.5, Winter, 1990, p.6.

⁵⁶Kenaitze Indian Tribe v. State of Alaska, 860 F. 2d. 312 (9th Cir., 1988), p.318.

⁵⁷Caulfield, op. cit., p.26; McDowell v. State of Alaska, 785 p.2d. 1 (Alaska, 1989).

⁵⁸Caulfield, op. cit., pp.30-1.

⁵⁹Native American Rights Fund, ‘Petition for rule-making by the Secretaries of Interior and Agriculture that navigable waters and federal reserved waters are "public lands" subject to Title VIII of ANILCA’s subsistence priority,’ 15 July 1993, Anchorage.

⁶⁰Hulen, David, ‘Fishing ban irks Natives,’ Anchorage Daily News, 4 September 1993, pp.Al, A10.

⁶¹Fienup-Riordan, Ann, Eskimo Essays, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick and London, p.181.

⁶²McBeath, Gerald A. and Morehouse, Thomas A., The Dynamics of Alaska Native Self-Government, University Press of America, Washington, DC, 1980.

⁶³State of Alaska, Department of Labor, Alaska Population Overview, 1991, op. cit., p.42.

⁶⁴In fact, several villages would like to disband their municipal governments in favour of traditional tribal councils. Elders may feel that the tribal councils are more culturally appropriate forms of governance. Seven years ago the village of Kasigluk disbanded the municipality and it has since been governed by a council that runs a tribal court, collects a sales tax, employs tribal police and has a tribal gaol. See ‘Five villages eager for tribal councils,’ Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, 22 October 1993, p.B2.

⁶⁵Morehouse, Thomas A., The Dual Political Status of Alaska Natives under US Policy, Institute of Social and Economic Research, Anchorage, 1992.

⁶⁶O’Brien, Sharon, American Indian Tribal Governments, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman and London, 1989, pp.86-90.

⁶⁷US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, ‘Indian entities recognized and eligible to receive services from the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs,’ Washington, DC, 15 October 1993.

⁶⁸In Re Delinquent Property Taxes Owed to the City of Nome, 780 P. 2. 363 (Alaska, 1989); Jaeger, Lisa, personal communication, Fairbanks, 5 October 1993.

⁶⁹This issue is currently before the federal court in Alyeska v. Kluti Kaah, Case No. A87-201 CIV.

⁷⁰Kleinfeld, Judith, Alaska Native Education: Issues in the Nineties, University of Alaska, Anchorage, Institute of Social and Economic Research, April 1992, p.13.

⁷¹Krauss, Michael, ‘Many tongues — ancient tales,’ in Fitzhugh and Crowell, op. cit., pp.145-50.

⁷²McBeath, Gerald A., personal communication, Fairbanks, 6 September 1993.

⁷³Barnhardt, Carol, ‘History of schooling for Alaska Native people,’ unpublished manuscript, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 1993.

⁷⁴Memorandum from Heather Dendall, Native American Rights Fund, Anchorage, 4 October 1993.

⁷⁵Native American Rights Fund, Indian Education Legal Support Project: Tribalizing Indian Education, presentation/workshop materials, September 1993, section 4.

⁷⁶Huskey, Lee, The Economy of Village Alaska, Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of Alaska, Anchorage, 1992.

⁷⁷‘The Alaska congressional delegation’s report to AFN,’ Anchorage, October 1993, pp.1,4.

⁷⁸Ibid., p.4 .

⁷⁹The AFN Report on the Status of Alaska Natives: A Call for Action, Anchorage, January 1989, p.65.

⁸⁰Colt, Steve, ‘Financial performance of Native regional corporations,’ Alaska Review of Social and Economic Conditions, No.28, December 1991, pp.1-24.

⁸¹State of Alaska, Department of Labor, Research and Analysis, State Data Center, ‘Income data for the State of Alaska,’ Juneau, 1990.

The Alaska Natives: Bibliography

Alaska Federation of Natives, The AFN Report on the Status of Alaska Natives: A Call for Action, Anchorage, 1989.

Arnold, Robert D., Alaska Native Land Claims, Alaska Native Foundation, Anchorage, 1978.

Barsh, Russel Lawrence and Henderson, James Youngblood, The Road: Indian Tribes and Political Liberty, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1980.

Berger, Thomas R., Village Journey: The Report of the Alaska Native Review Commission, Hill & Wang, New York, 1985.

Case, David, Alaska Natives and American Laws, University of Alaska Press, Fairbanks, 1984.

Caulfield, Richard A., ‘Alaska’s subsistence management regimes,’ Polar Record, Vol.22, No.164, p.23-32, 1992.

Chance, Norman A., The Inupiat and Arctic Alaska: An Ethnography of Development, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Fort Worth, 1990.

Cohen, Felix S., Handbook of Federal Indian Law, Michie Bobbs-Merrill, Charlottesville, 1982.

Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska, Alaska Natives and the Land, US Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1968.

Fienup-Riordan, Ann, Yup'ik Lives and How We See Them, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick and London, 1990.

Fitzhugh, William W., and Crowell, Aron (eds.), Crossroads of the Continents: Cultures of Siberia and Alaska, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, 1988.

Fortuine, Robert, Chills and Fever. Health and Disease in the Early History of Alaska, University of Alaska Press, Fairbanks, 1989.

Gruening, Ernest. 1954, The State of Alaska, Random House, New York, 1954.

Huntington, Sidney, Shadows on the Koyukuk: An Alaskan Native's Life along the River, Alaska Northwest Books, Anchorage, Seattle and Portland, 1993.

Huskey, Lee, The Economy of Village Alaska, Institute of Social and Economic Research, Anchorage, 1992.

Kleinfeld, Judith, Alaska Native Education: Issues in the Nineties, Institute of Social and Economic Research, Anchorage, 1992.

Langdon, Steve J., (ed.), Contemporary Alaskan Native Economies, University Press of America, Lanham, 1986.

McBeath, Gerald A., and Morehouse, Thomas A., The Dynamics of Alaska Native Self-Government, University Press of America, Washington DC, 1980.

Mangusso, Mary Childers, and Haycox, Stephen W., (eds.), Interpreting Alaska's History: An Anthology, Alaska Pacific University Press, Anchorage, 1989.

Morehouse, Thomas A., The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 1991, and Tribal Government, Occasional Paper No.19, Institute of Social and Economic Research, Anchorage, 1988.

Morehouse, Thomas A., The Dual Political Status of Alaska Natives under US Policy, Institute of Social and Economic Research, Anchorage, 1992.

Napoleon, Harold, Yuuyaraq: The Way of the Human Being, Center for Cross-Cultural Studies, College of Rural Alaska, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 1991.

Naske, Klaus M., and Slotnick, Herman E., Alaska — A History of the 49th State, 2nd edn., University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1987.

Nelson, Richard K., Hunters of the Northern Forest, 2nd edn., University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1986.

Smith, Barbara Sweetland, and Barnett, Redmond J., Russian America: The Forgotten Frontier, Washington State Historical Society, Tacoma, 1990.

Smith, Eric, and Kancewick, Mary, ‘The tribal status of Alaska Natives,’ University of Colorado Law Review, No.61, pp.455-516.

Wilkinson, Charles E, American Indians, Time, and the Law, Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1987.

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